Enhancing Indigenous Economic Development in British Columbia 

Assignment 1: A Personal Narrative

Kimberley A. Ilott

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Athabasca University

GLST695: Political Economy of Development - People, Processes, and Policies

Dr. Elizabeth Smythe

June 2023

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Abstract

Indigenous economic development in British Columbia faces a complex array of challenges and opportunities. This research essay explores the key challenges Indigenous communities encounter, such as historical marginalization, limited access to capital, and the legacies of colonialism. Additionally, it examines the numerous opportunities that can be harnessed for economic growth, including resource development, tourism, and self-governance. To address these challenges and capitalize on the available opportunities, various strategies are essential. These strategies involve building strong partnerships, fostering entrepreneurship, enhancing education and skills development, and promoting cultural preservation. By understanding and implementing these strategies, British Columbia can support Indigenous communities in achieving sustainable economic development. As a student of the Master of Arts in Interdisciplinary Studies with a focus on Work, Organization, and Leadership, this research essay highlights the connections between Indigenous and non-indigenous leadership, organizational structures, and economic development feasibility. A literature review, course content inclusion, and document analysis were used to identify mechanisms for the exploration and understanding of the key challenges, opportunities, and strategies for enhancing Indigenous economic development in British Columbia.

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Enhancing Indigenous Economic Development in British Columbia

Introduction

Background

Indigenous communities in British Columbia have long struggled with socioeconomic disparities resulting from colonial policies, resource exploitation, and limited access to economic opportunities. Development as a field of study originated in the post-war era of decolonization, and while contemporary development studies disassociate themselves from colonization (Athabasca University, 2023a, p. 5, para. 4), the legacy of colonization continues to be an undercurrent in the challenges that are faced by Indigenous peoples. However, in recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the need to enhance Indigenous economic development as a means of reconciliation, self-determination, and building sustainable communities. In the 2015 Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) final report on residential schools, the TRC outlined the historical importance of treaties with Indigenous peoples and argued that treaty relationship renewals are an integral aspect of lasting reconciliation between Canada’s Indigenous and settler societies (Papillion, 2020, p. 1). Papillion (2020) goes on to state that

While there is no single uniform view among Indigenous peoples, treaties are generally understood as political compacts aimed at rebalancing their relationship with the state, based on the recognition of their rights on the land and their status as inherently self-governing nations. (Papillion, 2020, p. 4)

 

Similar to the views among Indigenous peoples, federal, provincial, and territorial governmental bodies vary with some seeing modern treaties as legal transactions with the sole purpose of clarifying land ownership in an attempt to delineate economic development potential (Papillion, 2020, p. 4). These diverging views of Indigenous peoples and settler societies toward treaties highlight the juxtaposition of the current state of reconciliation efforts against ingrained colonization tendencies.

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Objective

This research essay aims to explore the key challenges faced by Indigenous communities in British Columbia in their pursuit of economic development. It also identifies various opportunities available to these communities and examines strategies that can be implemented to overcome the challenges and leverage the opportunities. By understanding the dynamics at play, policymakers, community leaders, and other stakeholders can develop effective approaches to support Indigenous economic development. Through the exploration of the historical challenges Indigenous peoples have faced as a result of colonization, such as limited access, deficits, and disparities for economic gain, this research essay will discuss opportunities for Indigenous economic development through the natural world, governmental, and cultural resources. This research essay will provide evidence from successful Indigenous economic development projects and highlight additional strategies for further economic development such as building strong partnerships, increased education and skills training, and cultural preservation. Lastly, policy frameworks and government support available for Indigenous economic development projects will be reviewed ahead of a summarization of findings and recommendations for future action toward the enhancement of Indigenous economic development in British Columbia.

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Historical Context and Challenges

Colonial Legacy and Marginalization

Indigenous communities in British Columbia continue to grapple with the legacies of colonialism, including the displacement of traditional territories, loss of cultural heritage, and systemic marginalization. These historical injustices have contributed to economic disparities, leading to lower employment rates, higher poverty levels, and limited access to resources and decision-making processes; as the course content suggests, Indigenous peoples “have frequently suffered abrogation of political, economic, and cultural rights” (Athabasca University, 2023a, p. 5, para. 1).

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Course material highlighted the continued presence of the colonization mentality as a result of historically favourable conditions for European settlement; favourable conditions, where settler mortality was low, resulted in stronger institutions of law and order, including property ownership (Athabasca University, 2023b, p. 14, para. 1). These institutions continue to exist in current societies and continue to have an impact on the economic performance of marginalized people. As Abele and Stasiulis (1989, p. 241) raise, understanding the history of Indigenous-European contact is essential to Canadian state formation and economic development, and consolidation of government power over Indigenous lands continues to be a point of contention.  In Canada, the formative period for development has been identified as the period from the 1860s to the First World War with white settlers enjoying a privileged cultural, social, and political landscape stemming from British imperialism while eliminating, assimilating, or relocating the Indigenous peoples (Abele and Stasiulis, 1989, p. 244). Indigenous peoples were considered a problem that required a solution, this viewpoint led to Indigenous peoples becoming wards of the Crown through the Indian Act of 1876 which “established a tight regime of control designed to facilitate the assimilation of the Indigenous population to the dominant settler society… Indigenous peoples became subjects in a federation of provinces that they never consented to” (Papillion, 2020, p. 7).

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Limited Access to Capital

Indigenous entrepreneurs and businesses face significant challenges in accessing capital for start-up ventures and expansion. Traditional lending institutions often have strict requirements and limited familiarity with Indigenous economic models, hindering access to loans and financing options. This lack of capital restricts the development of Indigenous enterprises and inhibits economic growth lending itself to the demise of self-reliant and socially cohesive Indigenous communities as a result of the changing economic forces, encroaching population centres, and cultural appropriation of colonial expansion (Anderson et al., 2006, p. 46). Segregation, assimilation, as well as purposeful and intentional disparities, were imposed as a result of racism, normalizing settler behaviour under the pretense of colonial security. Harris (2002) discusses the rise of the colonial security mindset on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and generally in British Columbia when he stated

A growing conviction, fed by the growth of scientific racism before Darwin and by the evidence of uprisings against British authority (culminating in the Indian Mutiny of 1857-58), that [Indigenous] peoples could not be assimilated and therefore had to be forcibly repressed in the interests of colonial security… the founding colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia, and the [associated Indigenous] policies therewith, partook of both a long colonial history and of a particular mid-nineteenth-century historical moment. (Harris, 2002, pp. 3-4)

 

The Indigenous policies stemming from the colonization of British Columbia in the nineteenth century caused continued generational trauma, as well as a racist undercurrent to persist, into the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, crippling the economic opportunities for self-sufficiency through access to capital.

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Infrastructure Deficits

Infrastructure deficits, such as inadequate transportation, housing, and broadband connectivity, pose significant challenges to Indigenous economic development. Limited access to reliable transportation networks and essential services inhibits market access, trade, and business development in remote and rural Indigenous communities. As an example, many Indigenous communities lack the infrastructure to access safe drinking water. Bradford et al (2016) identify that provincial water regulations do not apply to Indigenous communities, rather a complex multi-department federal structure that includes Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Health Canada, and Environmental Canada are responsible for the delivery of safe drinking water. It can be argued that the lack of adequate infrastructure pertaining to the delivery of safe drinking water for Indigenous communities stems from continued issues of colonization, ongoing inequality, justice disparity, and ingrained institutional settler governance leading to biased funding allocation (Basdeo and Bharadwaj, 2013). The disparities Indigenous communities face concerning clean drinking water can be observed in all areas of infrastructure disparity, whether transportation, housing, telecommunications, or community access.

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Educational and Employment Disparities

Historically, Indigenous communities have faced significant disparities in education and employment opportunities. Limited access to quality education and training programs results in lower levels of human capital development, reducing Indigenous communities' ability to compete in the labor market and access higher-paying jobs. The complexities associated with current economies encourage the questioning of institutional and policy impact (Athabasca University, 2023c, p. 33), educational and employment institutions and policies that may have been considered inclusive or benign could have an impact on Indigenous people’s ability to obtain equal opportunity related to skills and training or workforce access.  Educational and employment disparities have been directly linked to Indigenous peoples health, leading to the communities facing a disproportionate burden of health issues and socioeconomic disadvantages (Hajizadeh et al., 2018). Socioeconomic outcomes for Indigenous peoples have been linked with colonization; Hajizadeh et al. state that

Analysis of 2006 data [on] Indigenous peoples living off-reserve revealed that income, employment status, and educational attainment mediated the effect of personal attendance at Indian residential school attendance on health. Likewise, analyses of the same 2006 data set showed that the intergenerational effects of parental residential attendance on their children’s school success [were] also mediated by socioeconomic status. (Hajizadeh et al., 2018)

As is widely acknowledged in current society, Canada’s residential schools were a key contributor to the government’s assimilation goal, and the intergenerational trauma stemming from the system continues to impact Indigenous peoples ability to trust institutional structures, thus impacting their ability to obtain equal education and employment opportunities.

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Opportunities for Indigenous Economic Development

Resource Development

British Columbia is rich in natural resources, offering opportunities for Indigenous communities to participate in responsible resource development. Collaboration between industry and Indigenous groups can lead to mutually beneficial partnerships, resource revenue sharing, and increased participation in decision-making processes. Historically, environmental assessments for resource extraction were completed without Indigenous community involvement. As part of the ongoing reconciliation effort, consultation on land use needs to occur between Crown corporations, private companies, and Indigenous communities; Indigenous communities in British Columbia have a rich history with the land, and consultative assessments must be conducted to identify the impacts, both positive and negative (Booth and Skelton, 2011).

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The University of California collaborated with two Indigenous communities, the Stó:lō Nation in British Columbia and the Fort Apache Heritage Foundation (White Mountain Apache Tribe) in Arizona, on global climate change leveraging the communities’ locally adaptive capacities and capabilities. Gauer et al. (2021) identify that Indigenous peoples are disproportionately threatened by global climate change. To explore the impacts of climate change on Indigenous communities as well as the resource management actions that Indigenous peoples take to counteract the global crisis, university researchers collaborated with the participating communities to explore perceptions, investigate adaptation opportunities, and outline actions that support Indigenous independence or leadership in the mitigation of future climate effects. Gauer et al. found that

Results confirm that Stó:lō and Apache territories and communities have experienced climate change impacts, such as changes in temperature, hydrology, and [an] increase in extreme weather events. Climate effects are cumulative to [the] colonial depletion of traditional environments and further reduce access to traditional resources, practices, and food security. (Gauer et al., 2021).

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Study results suggested that Indigenous communities, when self-governed and enabled, have the capacity to adapt to the climate crisis, the university researchers highlighted, specifically, that Indigenous historical knowledge of the land and resources within, as well as the relationships between Indigenous community institutions (i.e., community groups or Indigenous-owned businesses), are enablers for future adaptive capacity increases to support their communities independently. While the above is an example related to resource adaptation concerning the climate crisis, the topic can encompass more basic resource management development strategies such as forestry and hydroelectricity involvement.

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Ecotourism and Cultural Tourism

Indigenous communities possess a unique cultural heritage and natural landscapes that attract tourists seeking authentic experiences. By developing sustainable ecotourism and cultural tourism initiatives, Indigenous communities can showcase their traditions, generate revenue, and create employment opportunities while preserving their cultural identity. Indigenous tourism can foster, promote, and preserve Indigenous culture, traditions, and the environment. Symposiums, such as the Sustainable Indigenous Tourism Symposium, held in Nanaimo, British Columbia in April 2017, enable Indigenous communities and leaders, scholars, trade industry representatives, and students to foster interactive dialogue that facilitates knowledge sharing, community empowerment, cultural expression, and economic prosperity in Indigenous communities within the tourist industry (Graci et al., 2021). Indigenous ecotourism and cultural tourism are assisting to deconstruct ingrained colonization biases. As Helen Jennings (2023) experienced firsthand, in Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, Indigenous communities participate in eco and cultural tourism with the mindset of learning, teaching, and healing, not only for tourists but themselves. Jennings goes on to state that decolonization practices are occurring through Indigenous peoples

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Learning how to be guides and performers, their languages, traditional practices, histories, and politics, they [are] able to explore with tourists aspects of their indigeneity and spirituality, illustrate [the] diversity of peoples and practices, and teach about their values and hopes for the future. Healing is gained through having a space to learn and to teach, and to restore pride to the communities by taking control of the narratives.

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Indigenous eco and cultural tourism have been growing in British Columbia, with two hundred and four communities and more than thirty languages, British Columbia’s six diverse regions provide tourists with authentic experiences (Indigenous Tourism Association of BC, 2023).

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Self-Governance and Land Stewardship

Indigenous self-governance and land stewardship present opportunities for economic development through sustainable land management, resource conservation, and the revitalization of traditional practices. Indigenous communities can shape their economic futures and create a foundation for long-term prosperity by asserting their rights and jurisdiction over their territories. An area where tension often rises revolves around resource extraction, and the related projects’ operation is frequently contested, leading to injunctions. Indigenous protests against resource extraction continue to be seen as civil disobedience, and under the Canadian rule of law, irrespective of who constructs blockades that interrupt economic interests, the blockades are not considered a lawfully protected peaceful assembly (Dalton, 2022). While North American settler governments receive backlash over environmental policy shortcomings, many Indigenous Nations, such as the Nuu-chah-nulth Nations on the west coast of Vancouver Island, are “pursuing a resurgence of environmental self-governance according to ancestral principles and practices” (Popken et al., 2023) in an attempt to balance the disparate power relations of colonialism. Using the Nuu-chah-nulth Nations’ community principles as an example, Nuu-chah-nulth peoples believe in all things as being connected as one (hišukʔiš c̓awaak), respect is an act of care (ʔiisaak), and there is a duty to be a caretaker (ʔuʔaałuk); through these principles, Indigenous self-governing structures and land stewardship are deeply rooted in ancestral knowledge and wisdom (Popken et al., 2023).

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Indigenous Business Development

Indigenous entrepreneurship and business development offer avenues for economic growth. By fostering a supportive ecosystem, providing mentorship, and facilitating access to capital, Indigenous entrepreneurs can establish successful businesses that contribute to the local economy, create employment opportunities, and promote community well-being. As of 2020, Indigenous businesses contribute 32 billion dollars to Canada’s annual GDP, with more than 43,000 First Nations, Inuit, and  Métis who are business owners (Government of Canada, 2023); the Government of Canada (2023) briefing note goes on to highlight that an estimated 19,000 Indigenous businesses were located within Indigenous communities. With most Government of Canada statistics, the above statistic reporting has a lag time present, but it is expected that with the continued support of Indigenous business development through economic supports such as Small Business BC, Trade and Invest BC, or Provincial funding for Indigenous entrepreneurship, to name a few, Indigenous business development statistics will continue to rapidly increase.

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Strategies for Enhancing Indigenous Economic Development

Building Strong Partnerships

Collaboration between Indigenous communities, government agencies, industry partners, and non-profit organizations is crucial for creating sustainable economic development opportunities. Building strong partnerships ensures that initiatives are community-driven, culturally appropriate, and aligned with the aspirations and priorities of Indigenous peoples. These partnerships are foundational for Indigenous peoples to actively, and fully, participate in the economy and take advantage of economic development opportunities. A strong partnership will promote the Indigenous ancestral understanding that true sustainability occurs when the preservation of Indigenous culture is present and Indigenous communities are able to thrive for future generations. Nelson (2019, p. 6) highlights that many Indigenous communities actively develop economic development plans and have partnerships with external non-indigenous businesses and or governments; however, Nelson goes on to state that while economic development activities are occurring as the result of partnerships

the National Aboriginal Economic Development Board (2016) shows that while there has been a slight gain in wealth generation between 2006 and 2011, there remains a significant gap between Indigenous people and non-indigenous people in Canada [and that the] economic potential of Indigenous people remains unrealized. (Nelson, 2019, p. 6)

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Fostering Entrepreneurship

Investing in entrepreneurship programs, business incubators, and mentorship initiatives tailored to the unique needs of Indigenous entrepreneurs can foster economic growth. These programs should emphasize cultural values, traditional knowledge, and Indigenous business models to empower individuals and create a supportive environment for new enterprises. Gallagher (2015) identifies that the impact of entrepreneurship on Indigenous identity has largely been unexplored, saying “research exploring how Indigenous identities will influence entrepreneurial practices as well as how experiences surrounding these influences will vary for Indigenous entrepreneurs within and between regional/country contexts is sorely lacking” (Gallagher, 2015). Further research, with Indigenous researchers, on the impacts of Indigenous entrepreneurship is necessary to identify where support is needed to foster entrepreneurship based on trusted partnerships in and out of Indigenous communities.

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Enhancing Education and Skills Development

Improving access to quality education and skills development programs is essential for increasing economic opportunities for Indigenous individuals. Collaborative efforts between Indigenous communities, educational institutions, and industry partners can provide culturally relevant education and training, addressing employment disparities and equipping individuals with the skills necessary for success. Sisco and Nelson (2008) raised that there continues to be a large gap in education levels between Canada’s settler population and the Indigenous population. While the divide is decreasing, Indigenous communities need to be involved in the decision-making associated with their education and skills development. Knowledge and capacity for economic development can vary significantly across Indigenous communities, a lasting and continued result of colonization. Focus on enhanced education and skills training for Indigenous peoples is an immediate need as both are necessary to build knowledge and capacity for economic governance, the ripple effects of which will be felt in all realms of Indigenous socioeconomic status.

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Promoting Cultural Preservation

Indigenous communities have a rich cultural heritage that plays a significant role in their economic development. Efforts to promote cultural preservation, language revitalization, and traditional practices not only foster community resilience but also enhance the attractiveness of Indigenous tourism experiences, thereby contributing to economic growth. Stemming from reconciliation efforts, in 2015, the British Columbia Ministry of Education mandated that the K-12 education system curricula include Indigenous knowledge, pedagogy, and worldviews (Priest et al., 2021). Comparing the K-12 education curricula on Vancouver Island from the 1990s versus the K-12 education curricula over the past decade, it is visible the impact of British Columbia’s Ministry of Education’s mandate; the inclusion of, and promotion of, Indigenous culture in the K-12 system is helping to breakdown the systemic settler racism that persists into today’s governmental structures and settler societies.

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Case Studies

Successful Indigenous Economic Development Projects

Case studies of successful Indigenous economic development projects in British Columbia provide valuable insights into best practices. These projects include examples from various sectors, such as renewable energy, forestry, fisheries, and cultural tourism, highlighting innovative approaches, partnerships, and strategies that have yielded positive outcomes. Importantly,

Economic development offers many communities a way to break free from the cycle of poverty and provides many Indigenous youth with hope for a better future. This could include meaningful work, proper housing, clean water, and education while maintaining their language, culture, and identity. (Nelson, 2019, p. 3)

 

Successful Indigenous economic development projects encompass a wide range of industries, within Canada, examples of success include the Osoyoos Nk’Mip Cellars winery, the Inuit-owned First Air Makivik Corporation, [and] the Mi’kmaq-owned Ulnooweg Development Corporation which assists children and youth across Canada through its registered charity (Nelson, 2019, p. 1). Missens et al.’s 2010 case study compared two Indigenous wineries, Nk’Mip Cellars in British Columbia and Tohu Wines in Marlborough, New Zealand. The comparative case study found that both wineries were “making considerable progress in marketing their unique traditional cultures” (Missens et al., 2010) in a thriving global wine economy. Wingham et al. (2004) found that the success of the two Indigenous wineries were providing increased attention to other Indigenous communities worldwide, specifically, to the development approaches employed. Figure one (Missens et al., 2010) below showcases the comparison of the two wineries’ organizational purpose and goals, beliefs and values, as well as the business strategies and marketing techniques employed that have contributed to their unique successes in their regions and within the global wine economy.

Figure 1: Summary of key points between the different approaches of Nk‘Mip and Tohu

 

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Note. In-depth details on the information outlined within Table 1 can be found in the Missens et al. 2010 comparison case study, published in the Journal of Aboriginal Economic Development, titled Indigenous entrepreneurship in the wine industry: a comparative study of two indigenous approaches. 

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Analyzing the lessons learned from successful projects can inform the development of effective strategies for future Indigenous economic development initiatives. Key lessons include the importance of community engagement, capacity building, intergenerational knowledge transfer, and the need for long-term planning and sustainability. Enabling Indigenous self-governance and strong partnerships between Indigenous and non-indigenous communities, while empowering Indigenous communities to fully participate in consultative processes, are also key success factors for Indigenous economic development.

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Policy Framework and Government Support

Government policies and legislation play a crucial role in supporting Indigenous economic development. Examining existing legislation, such as the BC Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act and the recognition of Indigenous rights and titles, provides a foundation for creating an enabling environment that supports Indigenous-led economic initiatives. Further to policies and legislation, government programs and funding mechanisms are essential for Indigenous economic development. Assessing existing programs, such as the Indigenous Skills and Employment Training Strategy and the Indigenous Community-Based Investment Readiness program, helps identify opportunities for enhancement and the creation of new initiatives that address the specific needs of Indigenous communities.

 

As stated above, in British Columbia, the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act (Declaration Act) stipulated that the Province create a Declaration Act Action Plan, which was subsequently released on March 30, 2022. The action plan includes four main goals that assist in implementing the long-term vision of the UN Declaration in British Columbia, as well as outlining eighty-nine priority actions that the Province will target over the next five years to 2027. As stated on the British Columbia Provincial (Government of B.C., 2023) website, the four main goals that guide related tangible, actionable steps are:

• Goal One: Self-Determination and Inherent Right of Self-Government. Indigenous people have full rights to self-determination and self-government, including the development, maintenance, and implementation of Indigenous institutions, laws, governing bodies, and structures (political, economic, and social).

• Goal Two: Title and Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Ability to enact inherent rights, including the rights of First Nations to own, use, develop, and control natural resources, including land, in their British Columbia territories.

• Goal Three: Ending Indigenous-specific Racism and Discrimination. Ability to express and exercise distinct rights, enablement of living in British Columbia without interpersonal, systemic, and or institutional interference, oppression, biases, or discrimination.

• Goal Four: Social, Cultural, and Economic Well-Being. Ability to exercise distinct rights to maintain, control, develop, protect, and transmit Indigenous cultural heritage, traditional knowledge, languages, food systems, sciences, and technologies. Assurance that support is available for full participation in the British Columbia economy, this includes a focus on the rights of Indigenous women, youth, Elders, children, persons with disabilities, and 2SLGBTQQIA+.

 

More information on British Columbia’s Declaration Act Action Plan can be found on the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act website (Government of B.C., 2023).

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Conclusion

Summary of Findings

Indigenous economic development in British Columbia faces significant challenges resulting from historical marginalization, limited access to capital, infrastructure deficits, and educational and employment disparities. However, there are numerous opportunities available, including resource development, tourism, self-governance, and entrepreneurship. Tangible action plans with measurable outcomes support the continued shift to equality concerning Indigenous self-sufficiency, financial independence, economic development opportunities, and the right to participate in the Canadian economy freely and fully. Additionally, when researching the various economic development challenges and opportunities, it was evident that further research is necessary to adequately showcase Indigenous case studies that highlight successes and provide lessons learned, for future knowledge transfer, from instances where challenges occurred. Furthermore, while government supports, financial and other, were available to Indigenous communities for economic development, it was difficult to find participation rates; it would be a worthwhile venture to analyze the various programs, including non-government support programs, to measure whether a program is as useful to Indigenous communities and peoples as non-indigenous peoples think or believe they are.

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Recommendations for Future Action

As course material states, “economic growth appears to be followed by political and economic exclusions of large sections of populations” (Athabasca University, 2023d, p. 42); to challenge this trend, it is imperative that the excluded populations are engaged, enabled, empowered, and educated to fully participate in a country’s economy. For economic development in British Columbia, it is essential to implement strategies that focus on building strong partnerships, fostering entrepreneurship, enhancing education and skills development, and promoting cultural preservation. The First Nations Health Authority in British Columbia articulates Indigenous views on holistic health and wellness, which are impacted by socioeconomic status, best through Figure two below; at the centre of it all, is the human whose basic needs need to be met.

Figure 2: First Nations Perspective on Health and Wellness

 

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Note. More information on First Nations’ perspective on health and wellness can be found on the First Nations Health Authority (2023) website.

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Moreover, government support through appropriate policies, legislation, and funding mechanisms is crucial for creating an enabling environment that empowers Indigenous communities and facilitates sustainable economic growth. By addressing these challenges, harnessing opportunities, and implementing effective strategies, British Columbia can work towards achieving meaningful reconciliation, promoting self-determination, removing barriers, and supporting the economic prosperity of Indigenous communities.

 

References

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Anderson, R. B., Dana, L. P., & Dana, T. E. (2006). Indigenous land rights, entrepreneurship, and economic development in Canada: “Opting-in” to the global economy. Journal of world business, 41(1), 45-55

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Athabasca University. (2023a). Unit 1 – Introduction to Development Studies: Theory and Practice. Study Guide. GLST 695 Political Economy of Development – People, Processes, and Policies (Rev C1).

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Athabasca University. (2023b). Unit 2 – A Long View of Economic History: Putting “Development” (and the Lack of It) Into Perspective. Study Guide. GLST 695 Political Economy of Development – People, Processes, and Policies (Rev C1).

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Athabasca University. (2023c). Unit 5 – Development and Economic Globalization: The Enforcers and the Resisters. Study Guide. GLST 695 Political Economy of Development – People, Processes, and Policies (Rev C1).

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Athabasca University. (2023d). Unit 6 – Challenges of “Development” in the Twenty-First Century: Inequality, iCapitalism, and Climate Change. Study Guide. GLST 695 Political Economy of Development – People, Processes, and Policies (Rev C1).

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Basdeo M, Bharadwaj L. (2013). Beyond physical: social dimensions of the water crisis on Canada's First Nations and governance considerations. Intl Pol J.; 23: 1–14.

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Booth, A. L., & Skelton, N. W. (2011). “You spoil everything!” Indigenous peoples and the consequences of industrial development in British Columbia. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 13, 685-702.

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Bradford, L. et al. (2016). Drinking water quality in Indigenous communities in Canada and health outcomes: a scoping review, International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 75:1, DOI: 10.3402/ijch.v75.32336

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Dalton, S. (2022). Our land, our way: The rule of law, injunctions, and Indigenous self-governance. UNBLJ, 73, 312.

First Nations Health Authority. (2023). First Nations Perspective on Health and Wellness. Wellness for First Nations. Retrieved from https://www.fnha.ca/wellness/wellness-for-first-nations/first-nations-perspective-on-health-and-wellness

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Gallagher, B. M. (2015). Entrepreneurship and Indigenous identity: Three studies on the connections between Indigenous identity and entrepreneurial practices in Canada and Australia.

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Gauer, V. H., Schaepe, D. M., & Welch, J. R. (2021). Supporting Indigenous adaptation in a changing climate: Insights from the Stó: lō Research and Resource Management Centre (British Columbia) and the Fort Apache Heritage Foundation (Arizona). Elem Sci Anth, 9(1), 00164.

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Government of B.C. (2023). Declaration Act Action Plan. British Columbia: Building relationships with Indigenous peoples. Retrieved from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/indigenous-people/new-relationship/united-nations-declaration-on-the-rights-of-indigenous-peoples/implementation#:~:text=The%20Declaration%20Act%20Action%20Plan,over%20the%20next%20five%20years.

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Government of Canada. (2023). Creation of a 5% target in procurement-Indigenous business. Public Services and Procurement Canada.

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Graci, S., Maher, P. T., Peterson, B., Hardy, A., & Vaugeois, N. (2021). Thoughts from the think tank: Lessons learned from the sustainable Indigenous tourism symposium. Journal of Ecotourism, 20(2), 189-197.

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Harris, C. (2002). Making native space: Colonialism, resistance, and reserves in British Columbia. UBC Press.

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Hajizadeh, M., Hu, M., Bombay, A., & Asada, Y. (2018). Socioeconomic inequalities in health among Indigenous peoples living off-reserve in Canada: trends and determinants. Health Policy, 122(8), 854-865.

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Indigenous Tourism Association of BC. (2023). Our Story, Your Experience. Retrieved from https://www.indigenousbc.com/.

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Jennings, H. (2023). Learn, Teach, Heal: Articulations of Indigeneity and Spirituality in Indigenous Tourism in British Columbia, Canada.

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Missens, R., Dana, L. P., & Yule, S. (2010). Indigenous entrepreneurship in the wine industry: a comparative study of two indigenous approaches. Journal of Aboriginal Economic Development (JAED), 7(1), 26-38.

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National Indigenous Economic Development Board. (2016). Aboriginal economic development report. Retrieved from http://www.naedb-cndea.com/en/

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Nelson, R. (2019). Beyond dependency: Economic development, capacity building, and generational sustainability for Indigenous people in Canada. SAGE Open, 9(3), 2158244019879137.

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Papillion, M. (2020). The Two Faces of Treaty Federalism. Canadian Politics. (pp. 1 – 7)

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Popken, L. R., Griffin, P. J., Coté, C., & Angel, E. (2023). Indigenous food sovereignty through resurgent self-governance: centering Nuu-chah-nulth principles in sea otter management in Canada. Ecology and Society, 28(2).

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Prest, A., Goble, J. S., Vazquez-Cordoba, H., & Tuinstra, B. (2021). Enacting curriculum ‘in a good way:’Indigenous knowledge, pedagogy, and worldviews in British Columbia music education classes. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 53(5), 711-728.

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Sisco, A., & Nelson, R. (2008). Closing the gap: Toward capturing the value of aboriginal cultural industries. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: The Conference Board of Canada

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Wingham, D., Anderson, R., Giberson, R. (2004). The Indigenous wine industry: A meeting place for traditional and 21st century small business, 18th Annual USASBE National Conference CD Proceedings, Dallas, (CD with no page numbers).